Epinecidin-1
A fish antimicrobial peptide from the grouper — broad-spectrum and membrane-disrupting, with standout anticancer, antifungal and wound-healing research. Research compound, not a drug
Epinecidin-1 is one of the most studied fish antimicrobial peptides. It comes from the orange-spotted grouper and belongs to the piscidin family — the short, cationic, amphipathic helices that fish make in their immune cells. Like other members it binds and disrupts microbial membranes, giving it broad activity against bacteria, fungi and viruses, and it also neutralises bacterial endotoxin. What has made epinecidin-1 a research favourite is how much it does beyond killing microbes: it kills cancer cells (by several different death pathways), speeds wound healing, modulates the immune response, and is even being tried as a natural antifungal to protect crops. Because the native peptide can be toxic or weak in places, most recent work uses engineered versions — variants with extra lysine or arginine, recombinant and yeast-displayed forms — designed to be more selective and potent. Epinecidin-1 is a research peptide; it is not an approved medicine and has not been given to people as a treatment.
No established human dose Details ↓
Recommended Dosing
No established human dose
Epinecidin-1 is a grouper research peptide; it has not been given to people as a treatment. The work is in bacteria, fungi and cultured cells, often with engineered variants, at experimental amounts that do not carry over to people.
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What is it?
Fish make a wide range of antimicrobial peptides, and epinecidin-1 — from the orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) — is among the best characterised. It is a piscidin-family peptide: a short, cationic peptide of roughly twenty-one to twenty-five residues that folds into an amphipathic alpha-helix. Cloned and described by Taiwanese groups in the mid-2000s, it has since been studied for an unusually broad range of activities, which is why it recurs across the antimicrobial-peptide literature.
Its core mechanism, shared with other piscidins, is membrane disruption: the positively charged helix binds and permeabilises microbial membranes. Epinecidin-1 is broadly active against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi and viruses, and it binds bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide), which contributes to anti-inflammatory and anti-endotoxic effects. Recent antifungal work shows the mechanism includes membrane and cell-wall disruption, generation of reactive oxygen species and DNA binding, and that arginine-substituted analogs are more potent — one such analog even controlled gray-mould rot on peaches, pointing to agricultural as well as medical uses.
Epinecidin-1's most intensively studied second life is in cancer research. It selectively kills cancer cells while largely sparing normal cells, and it does so through several distinct death pathways rather than one: in osteosarcoma cells it triggered pyroptosis in one line and oncosis in another, in both cases through mitochondrial damage and a shift of calcium into the cell, and it made the chemotherapy drug methotrexate more effective. Lysine-substituted variants were two-to-four times more cytotoxic to cancer cells than the native peptide and combined well with doxorubicin at lower drug doses, while staying gentle on normal kidney cells. Engineering platforms such as yeast surface display are being used to screen many epinecidin-1 variants for the best balance of antimicrobial and anticancer potency against toxicity.
Beyond killing, epinecidin-1 helps tissues repair. In a human skin-cell model it increased cell proliferation and migration and promoted wound closure through NF-kB-linked, non-proteolytic signalling, adding regeneration to its antimicrobial and anticancer repertoire. Across these studies the recurring themes are breadth of activity and selectivity — and the use of rational engineering to sharpen both.
Through all of this, epinecidin-1 remains a research peptide. No published study has given it to people as a treatment, it is not approved anywhere, and material sold online under this name is an unregulated research chemical. Nothing here is a dose or a therapy; this page records what the published science says.
Mechanism of Action
Epinecidin-1 is a cationic, amphipathic alpha-helical grouper (piscidin-family) antimicrobial peptide that binds and disrupts microbial membranes (broad-spectrum antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral) and binds endotoxin. It also kills cancer cells by multiple death pathways, promotes wound healing, and is engineered into more potent, selective variants.
Grouper/piscidin host defense
A ~21-25 residue cationic amphipathic helix from the orange-spotted grouper, in the piscidin family of fish antimicrobial peptides (PMIDs 41949677, 42484926).
Membrane disruption + endotoxin binding
Permeabilises bacterial and fungal membranes, generates reactive oxygen species and binds DNA and endotoxin — broad antibacterial and antifungal activity (PMIDs 41665722, 40757572).
Published Research
These are studies of epinecidin-1 read from their PubMed records on November 7, 2026: two anticancer studies (multi-pathway cell death in osteosarcoma with methotrexate, and lysine-variant synergy with doxorubicin); a yeast-display engineering study of antimicrobial and selective anticancer variants; an antifungal study of recombinant variants against Candida and Aspergillus; a wound-healing study in human skin cells; and an agricultural antifungal study in peach fruit. The evidence is in bacteria, fungi and cultured cells; epinecidin-1 has not been given to people as a treatment.
Epinecidin-1 kills osteosarcoma cells by multiple death pathways
Epinecidin-1 killed two osteosarcoma cell lines not by classical apoptosis but by pyroptosis in one and oncosis in the other, in both cases via mitochondrial damage and a redistribution of calcium into the cytosol; it also cleaved gasdermin D through caspase-1 and made the chemotherapy drug methotrexate more cytotoxic, including against cancer stem-like spheres (an in-vitro anticancer study).
Epinecidin-1 variants enhance anticancer activity with doxorubicin
Lysine-substituted epinecidin-1 variants were two-to-four times more cytotoxic to a panel of cancer cell lines than the native peptide while sparing normal kidney cells, acted through reactive oxygen species and apoptosis, and combined with doxorubicin to kill cancer cells at much lower drug doses — an in-vitro anticancer and docking study.
Yeast-displayed epinecidin-1 variants: antimicrobial and selective anticancer
Nine rationally engineered epinecidin-1 variants differing in charge were displayed on yeast cells; several kept strong antibacterial activity against clinically relevant pathogens and reduced triple-negative breast-cancer cell viability over time, with no toxicity to normal kidney cells — framing yeast display as a platform for screening safer peptide derivatives (an in-vitro study).
Recombinant epinecidin-1 variants against fungal pathogens
Epinecidin-1 and lysine-substituted variants were antifungal against clinical Candida species and Aspergillus flavus, disrupting the cell membrane, inhibiting biofilms and hyphae and inducing reactive oxygen species; sub-inhibitory combinations with amphotericin B and miconazole were synergistic, lowering the antifungal doses needed (an in-vitro study).
Epinecidin-1 promotes wound healing via NF-kB signalling
In a human skin-cell model, epinecidin-1 increased cell viability, proliferation and migration and promoted wound closure through NF-kB-linked, non-proteolytic signalling (raising NFkB1 expression and lowering MMP9 activity) — highlighting a tissue-regenerative role alongside its antimicrobial activity (an in-vitro study).
An engineered epinecidin-1 controls postharvest mould on peaches
An arginine-substituted epinecidin-1 analog (EPI-4) was more antifungal than the parent peptide against the gray-mould fungus, disrupting the fungal cell membrane, inducing reactive oxygen species and binding DNA, and it effectively controlled postharvest gray mould on peach fruit — an agricultural application study.
No Established Human Dose
Epinecidin-1 is a grouper research peptide; it has not been given to people as a treatment. The work is in bacteria, fungi and cultured cells, often with engineered variants, at experimental amounts that do not carry over to people. No regulator has approved any dose, and no published human dose exists, so no amount is printed here.
What this rests on: PMID 42782477, PMID 42484926, PMID 41665722.
Educational information, not medical advice. The doses on this page come from approved labels, published studies and, where no study exists, amounts reported by users. None is a recommendation for you. An unapproved compound has no established safe or effective human dose, and products sold for “research use only” are not made or tested for people. Talk to a doctor before acting on anything on this site, including before you start, stop or change any medicine or dose. Full medical disclaimer.
What a Buyer Needs to Know
What is sold, how it is mixed, stored and taken, and what is known about its safety, quality and legal status. Each part names its source. Where we have none, it says unknown.
What is sold
Unknown: we hold no label and no published test that says what forms or vial sizes Epinecidin-1 is sold in. A vial's own label is a seller's claim, not a source.
Mixing a vial: a worked example
Unknown: no human dose of Epinecidin-1 has been established (see No Established Human Dose below), so there is no amount to work out. The reconstitution calculator does the arithmetic for any vial, water and dose.
Storage before and after mixing
Unknown: no label or published stability study on file says how to store Epinecidin-1, before or after mixing. The mixing guide sets out the general rules, with their sources: keep a mixed vial in the fridge, and use it promptly, as the bacteriostatic water label says of any drug dissolved in it. The 28 days often quoted is the limit for an opened multiple-dose vial from a manufacturer, an outer limit set for sterility, not a time a mixed solution has been shown to keep. Nobody has published how long Epinecidin-1 stays intact once mixed.
How it is taken
Unknown: with no established human dose, there is no established way of taking Epinecidin-1. What the human studies gave and how is set out under No Established Human Dose.
What to expect, and when
How long it stays in the body: a half-life of not established for humans; a short cationic peptide, variants engineered for stability. After about five half-lives almost none is left.
When effects appear: unknown; no source on this page gives a time to effect for Epinecidin-1. Results reported in the studies are under Published Research.
Source: half-life: PMID 41949677.
Side effects, and when to stop or get help
From the Side Effects section: No human adverse-event data exist: no published study has administered epinecidin-1 to people; As a membrane-active peptide, cytotoxicity and hemolysis to host cells are the central safety concern; engineered variants are designed specifically to spare normal cells (PMIDs 42484926, 41949677) — a research finding, not human data; Epinecidin-1 and its variants are cytotoxic to cancer cells by design (PMID 42782477); selectivity for tumour over healthy cells is an active research question; Material sold online as 'epinecidin' is an unregulated research chemical of unverified content. Full list and cautions ↓
When to stop or get help: unknown; no label or trial on file sets rules for stopping Epinecidin-1. Treat a severe or unexpected reaction as a reason to stop and see a doctor.
Source: the Side Effects section below (“Epinecidin-1 is a research peptide that has not been given to people as a drug, so there is no human safety profile; the points below reflect that research status and its biology”).
Interactions
Unknown: a PubMed search for human interaction studies of Epinecidin-1 (reviewed 2026-11-07) found none. Unknown is not the same as safe to combine.
Every peptide's record, with its source: the interaction matrix.
Checking what you bought
Unknown: no published independent test of Epinecidin-1 products is in our lab-results database yet, so how products sold under this name measure up is not known.
To read a certificate of analysis, paste it into the COA decoder. Trust & Verification explains what independent testing can and cannot show.
Legal status
US: Research Chemical (Not a drug: Drugs@FDA and the openFDA label endpoint hold no record, and FDA GSRS and ChEMBL hold no approved-drug record for epinecidin-1 (searched November 7, 2026)). Sport: Not on the 2026 List.
Country by country ↓ · Regulatory tracker
Source: this entry's approval status and the WADA Prohibited List, as in Legal Status below.
Side Effects & Contraindications
Reported Side Effects
Epinecidin-1 is a research peptide that has not been given to people as a drug, so there is no human safety profile; the points below reflect that research status and its biology.
Contraindications & Cautions
Epinecidin-1 has no approved use and no label. These points reflect its research status.
Legal Status
Epinecidin-1 is a fish antimicrobial peptide used as a research compound; it is not a drug and is not approved in any country.
Frequently Asked Questions
?What is epinecidin-1?
An antimicrobial peptide from the orange-spotted grouper, a member of the piscidin family of fish antimicrobial peptides. It is a short (~21-25 amino acid) cationic amphipathic helix, first characterised in the mid-2000s (PMID 41949677).
?How does it work?
It binds and disrupts microbial membranes (bacteria and fungi), generates reactive oxygen species, binds DNA and endotoxin, and against cancer cells triggers several death pathways including apoptosis, pyroptosis and oncosis (PMIDs 41665722, 42782477).
?What is it studied for?
As a broad-spectrum antibacterial and antifungal, an anticancer peptide (alone and with chemotherapy), a wound-healing agent, and even an agricultural antifungal — usually as engineered variants (PMIDs 42484926, 41655938, 40757572).
?Is it approved or available to buy?
No. Epinecidin-1 is not a medicine, has no FDA application or label, and is approved nowhere. Material sold online as epinecidin is an unregulated research chemical. Grey Peptides lists no sellers and recommends no source; this page records the published science.
References
- [mechanism] Lee YC, et al. "Epinecidin-1 Induces Distinct Oncosis and Pyroptosis Responses in Osteosarcoma Cells and Enhances Methotrexate-associated Cytotoxicity." Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins, 2026. PMID: 42782477.
- [mechanism] Jeyarajan S, et al. "Anticancer effects of alpha-helical peptide epinecidin-1 and its variants in combination with doxorubicin." Med Oncol, 2026;43(9). PMID: 42484926.
- [mechanism] Yuceer S, et al. "Rational engineering and yeast surface display of Epinecidin-1 peptides reveal antimicrobial activity and selective anticancer effects." Mol Biol Rep, 2026;53(1). PMID: 41949677.
- [mechanism] Peter AS, et al. "Recombinant AMPs (Epinecidin-1 and its Variants): A New Hope against Invasive Fungal Infections against Candida spp. and Aspergillus flavus." Curr Microbiol, 2026;83(4):168. PMID: 41665722.
- [mechanism] Ulkan Z, et al. "Epinecidin-1 enhances proliferation and migration via NFκB-linked mechanisms: Insights into wound healing potential." Exp Cell Res, 2026;457(1):114929. PMID: 41655938.
- [mechanism] Fan L, et al. "The Antifungal Ability of Amino Acid Substitution of Antimicrobial Peptide Epinecidin-1 to Botrytis cinerea in Peach Fruit." J Agric Food Chem, 2025;73(32):20375-20384. PMID: 40757572.
- [other] Epinecidin-1 is an antimicrobial peptide from the orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides), a member of the piscidin family of fish antimicrobial peptides. It was cloned and characterised by Taiwanese research groups in the mid-2000s and has since been studied widely; its structure and activities are described in the studies carded on this page (read November 7, 2026).
- [other] US FDA, Drugs@FDA and the openFDA label endpoint, searched November 7, 2026: no application and no label record for epinecidin-1. It is a grouper research antimicrobial/anticancer peptide, not a drug; FDA GSRS and ChEMBL hold no approved-drug record for it.
Sources & Citations
The six studies carded above were read from their PubMed records on November 7, 2026. Epinecidin-1's orange-spotted-grouper origin and piscidin-family membership, its short cationic amphipathic helical structure, its membrane-disrupting broad-spectrum mechanism, and its anticancer (multi-pathway), wound-healing, antifungal and agricultural activities and engineered variants are from the studies carded here; the discovery is the mid-2000s work of Taiwanese groups (Yin, Pan and colleagues). The absence of US approval or a drug record from Drugs@FDA, openFDA, FDA GSRS and ChEMBL was checked the same day. Grey Peptides sells nothing and links to no vendor.
Medical Disclaimer: This content is for educational and informational purposes only. It is not medical advice, and nothing here is an instruction to obtain or use any compound. Talk to a licensed clinician about your own situation.